Visions John the Evangelist, as depicted in the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Four seraphim surround the throne; the twenty-four elders sit to the left and right. They are dressed in white robes, representing pureness, and have crowns of gold on their heads, denoting royalty and honor (Rev 4:4). The book of Revelation does not specifically identify who the twenty-four elders are, though it is thought to be the twelve sons of Jacob and the twelve Disciples of Jesus.
The book of Revelation or The Apocalypse of John (IPA: /əˈpɑkəlɪps/, from
Greek ἀποκάλυψις ἀπο or apo- ["away from"] and κάλυψις or kaluptein
["cover"]—meaning literally "to pull the cover away from") is the last canonical
book of the New Testament in the Bible. It is the only biblical book that is
wholly composed of apocalyptic literature. The book is frequently called by the
incorrect name Book of Revelations. However, the actual title of the book is The
Revelation of Jesus Christ ... unto his servant John, as it is rendered in the
first verse.[1] It was one revelation given to John, not multiple revelations.
After a short introduction (ch. 1:1–10), it contains an account of the author,
who identifies himself as John, of two visions that he received on the isle of
Patmos. The first vision (chs. 1:11–3:22), related by "one like unto the Son of
man, clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt about the paps with a
golden girdle", speaking with "a great voice, as of a trumpet", are statements
addressed to the seven churches of Asia. The second vision comprising the rest
of the book (chs. 4–22) begins with "a door … opened in heaven" and describes
the end of the world—involving the final rebellion by Satan at Armageddon, God's
final defeat of Satan, and the restoration of peace to the world.
Revelation is considered one of the most controversial and difficult books of
the Bible, with many diverse interpretations of the meanings of the various
names and events in the account. Protestant founder Martin Luther considered
Revelation to be "neither apostolic nor prophetic" and stated that "Christ is
neither taught nor known in it" [2].
In the 4th century, St. John Chrysostom and other bishops argued against
including this book in the New Testament canon, chiefly because of the
difficulties of interpreting it and the danger for abuse. Christians in Syria
also reject it because of the Montanists' heavy reliance on it. In the 9th
century, it was included with the Apocalypse of Peter among "disputed" books in
the Stichometry of St. Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople. In the end it
was included in the accepted canon, although it remains the only book of the New
Testament that is not read within the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox
Church.
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Authorship, Audience, and Date
The author of Revelation identifies himself several times as "John" (1:4, 9;
22:8). The author also states that he was in exile on the island of Patmos when
he received his first vision (1:9; 4:1–2). As a result the author of Revelation
is referred to as John of Patmos.
Traditional views hold that John of Patmos was the same person as John the
Apostle, who is also considered to be the author of the Gospel of John. Others
speculate that John the Apostle, John the Evangelist, and John of Patmos refer
to at least three separate individuals (see Authorship of the Johannine works).
Those in favor of a single common author point to similarities between the
Gospel and Revelation. For example, both works frequently refer to Jesus as a
lamb or as a shepherd.
In contrast to the traditional view, several lines of evidence suggest that John
of Patmos wrote only Revelation, not the Gospel of John or the Epistles of John.
Revelation and the Gospel of John are very dissimilar in many ways. For one, the
author of Revelation explicitly identifies himself as John several times, but
the author of The Gospel of John remains anonymous, never identifying himself
directly. The theology of the Gospel is markedly different from that of
Revelation. While both works liken Jesus to a lamb, they consistently use
different words for lamb—the Gospel uses "amnos", Revelation uses "arnion".
Lastly, the Gospel is written in nearly flawless Greek, but Revelation contains
grammatical errors and stylistic abnormalities which indicate its author may not
have been as familiar with the Greek language as the Gospel's author. Proponents
of the traditional view explain these differences by the collaboration of the
author with different scribes.
Some theologians also argue that the Gospel of John contains a realized
eschatology which contradicts the futurist eschatology contained in Revelation
(e.g., chs. 21–22).
John explicitly addresses Revelation to the seven Christian churches in Asia:
Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea (1:4,
11). All of these sites are located in what is now Turkey.
Traditionally, the date of the writing of this book has generally been fixed at
the year AD 96, in the reign of Domitian. Others contend for an earlier date, AD
68 or 69, in the reign of Nero or shortly thereafter. Those who are in favour of
the later date appeal to the external testimony of the Christian father Irenaeus
(d. AD 185), who received information relative to this book from those who had
seen John face to face. He says that the Apocalypse "was seen no very long time
since, but almost in our day, towards the end of Domitian's reign" (A.H.
5.30.3). Also internal evidence has been used to place it under Domitian, who
according to Eusebius had started the persecution referred to in the book.
However, recent scholars dispute that the book is situated in a time of ongoing
persecution and have also doubted the reality of a large-scale Domitian
persecution, as there is no reference to such a persecution before Eusebius.
[edit]
Major Schools of Interpretation
There are several schools of thought concerned with how the symbolism, imagery,
and contents of the book of Revelation should be interpreted.
The Biblical prophecy school of thought holds that the contents of Revelation,
especially when interpreted in conjunction with the Book of Daniel and other
eschatological sections of the Bible, constitute a prophecy of the end times.
This school can be further subdivided into the preterist view, which sees the
book concerned with 1st-century events; the futurist view, which applies all the
events in the book into the end times; and the historicist view, which regards
the book as spanning history from the first century through the second coming.
A second Biblical Prophecy school of thought exists, believing that Revelation
is merely a rewrite of the various prophetic books of the Old Testament and that
it was originally located at the end of the Old Testament with several other,
since removed, prophetic books. This school also maintains that many of these
same prophetic books are merely rewrites of each other in the same way that
Matthew, Mark, and Luke are.
The historical-critical approach, which became dominant among critical scholars
of religion since the end of the 18th century, attempts to understand Revelation
within the genre of apocalyptic literature, which was popular in both Jewish and
Christian tradition since the Babylonian diaspora, following the pattern of the
Book of Daniel. There is further information on these topics in the entries on
higher criticism and apocalyptic literature.
Recently, aesthetic and literary modes of interpretation focus on Revelation as
a work of art and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of
timeless truths and the victory of good over evil.
The Ebionites and other Essene and Primitive churches regard Revelation as a
description of the Destruction of The Temple in AD 66 and the subsequent
Imperial Roman persecution of Jews and Christians.
The "Patristic Interpretation", or the view held by St. Augustine, Jerome, and
other early Church Fathers, views Revelation as an attempt to describe a
spiritual reality and heavenly worship and compare it to the liturgy of the
Christian Church. Although all but forgotten today, this interpretation is
alluded to in the Catechism of the Catholic Church and has been avidly promoted
by modern theologians such as Scott Hahn.
These schools of thought are not mutually exclusive, and many Christians adopt a
combination of these approaches in the manner they find most meaningful.
However, certain tendencies may be observed. The Biblical Prophecy school of
thought is popular among Protestant fundamentalists, other evangelicals (many of
whom also find value in the other approaches), and amongst Rastafarians, who
interpret the book very differently from fundamentalist Christians but
definitely belong to the Biblical Prophecy school. (Rastafarians believe Haile
Selassie I to be the Messiah and God incarnate.) Members of more mainline and
liberal churches tend to prefer the historical-critical and aesthetic
approaches. Moreover, Roman and Orthodox churches have delimited their own
specific positions on Revelation.
[edit]
Interpretative Views of Revelation as Biblical Prophecy
[edit]
The Preterist View
The view of Preterism holds that the contents of Revelation constitute a
prophecy of events that were fulfilled in the 1st century. This view depends
critically on an early date of Revelation, circa AD 68, since any later date
makes the "prophecy" postdate the events prophesied. Even accepting that date
leaves a narrow margin of one to two years before the fulfillment occurs.
Preterist interpretations generally identify Jerusalem as the persecutor of the
Church, "Babylon", the "Mother of Harlots", etc. They see Armageddon as God's
judgment on the Jews, carried out by the Roman army, which is identified as "the
beast". Some preterists see the second half of Revelation as changing focus to
Rome, its persecution of Christians, and the fall of the Roman Empire. It sees
the Revelation being fulfilled in AD 70, thereby bringing the full presence of
God to dwell with all humanity.
[edit]
The Futurist View
The futurist view assigns all of the prophecy to some future time, shortly
before the second coming. Futurist interpretations generally predict a Great
Tribulation, a relatively short period of time when believers will experience
worldwide persecution and be purified and strengthened by it, and a rapture,
whereby all true Christians are taken from Earth by God into Heaven.
Pretribulationists believe that all Christians then alive will be taken bodily
up to Heaven before the Tribulation begins. Some variants of this interpretation
portray Israeli Jews as collaborators with the Antichrist; well-known futurist
Pat Robertson was sharply criticized for actually stating that "The Antichrist
is probably a Jew alive in Israel today." Midtribulationists believe that the
rapture of the faithful will occur halfway through the tribulation, after it
begins but before the worst part of it occurs. Posttribulationists believe that
Christians will not be taken up into Heaven until Christ returns at the end of
the Tribulation.
The futurist view was first proposed by two Catholic writers, Lacunza and Ribera.
Lacunza wrote under the pen name "Ben Ezra", and his work was banned by the
Catholic Church. It has grown in popularity in the 19th and 20th centuries, so
that today it is probably most readily recognized. Books about the "rapture" by
authors like Hal Lindsey, and the more recent Left Behind novels (by Jerry
Jenkins and Tim LaHaye) and movies, have done much to popularize this school of
thought.
The Rastafarians hold a futurist view of the book of Revelation, relating it
both to 20th-century events such as the crowning of Ethiopian Emperor Haile
Selassie and the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, and also to future events such as
the supposed second coming of Selassie on the supposed day of judgment.
[edit]
The Historicist View
The historicist view regards the prophecy as spanning the time from the end of
the first century through the second coming of Christ.
Politically, historicist interpretations apply the symbols of Revelation to the
gradual division and collapse of the Roman Empire, the emergence of a divided
Europe in the West and a Muslim empire in the East, and the collapse of the
Eastern Empire while Europe attempts to reunite and recreate the Roman Empire.
Ecclesiastically, historicist interpretations see Revelation as teaching that
the Church would expand, despite persecution, until it "conquered" the whole
world—but in the process, would gradually evolve into an apostate system within
which true Christians would be a persecuted minority. The apostate Church is
associated with the symbols of the "Mother of Harlots" and with "Babylon". It is
seen as an "Antichrist system" which exists for much of history rather than
expecting a single "Antichrist" in the last days, as futurist interpretations
do.
According to historicist interpretations, the second coming of Christ occurs
about the time that a partly reunited Europe starts to wage war against Israel.
This view is held mainly by Fundamentalist Protestant Christians. The exact
constitution of this confederacy differs between interpretations: in some it is
mainly composed of Eastern European countries, notably Russia; in others,
Western European; some include England, while others suggest that England and
former Commonwealth nations will oppose the confederacy. In all historicist
interpretations, Christ defeats this confederacy, rescues Israel from certain
destruction, judges apostate Christianity and vindicates the true believers, and
sets up a kingdom on earth.
The earliest Christian writers adopted a historicist viewpoint, though at such
an early date, the distinction between historicist and futurist views was less
pronounced. Historicist interpretations tend to be millenarian, emphasizing the
literal reign of Christ on earth, and as that doctrine receded in importance, so
too did the historicist focus in interpretation. Today, historicist
interpretations are favored in the most ardently millenarian sects.
Many Protestant writers today use this school of interpretation as the
foundation for an anti-Catholic polemic, but it should be noted that such is not
an inherent property of historical interpretations. Many Catholic writers in the
fourth and fifth centuries applied the notion of future apostasy to their own
church, in various ways. Some argued that an apostasy would arise within the
church. Others argued that this had already happened, and cited one or another
sect which arose over some theological dispute. What differs between
interpretations is the identity of the apostasy.
[edit]
The Spiritual or Idealist View
The Spiritual view (also called Idealist by some writers) does not see the book
of Revelation as predicting specific events in history. Rather it sees the
visions as expressing eternal spiritual truths that find expression throughout
history. Only in the last few chapters are specifically predictive
eschatological issues taken up.
[edit]
The Eastern Orthodox View
Eastern Orthodoxy has an interpretation that does not fit well into any of the
above classifications. It treats the text as simultaneously describing
contemporaneous events and as prophecy of events to come, for which the
contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadow. It rejects attempts to
determine, before the fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping
them onto present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against
those who proclaim "He is here!" prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a
warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may
come ("as a thief in the night"), but they will come at the time of God's
choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by
mortals.
[edit]
Historical-Critical Interpretation
The historical-critical interpretation takes as axiomatic some qualities that
would be considered commonplaces in a non-Christian or non-Rastafarian context,
first of all that Revelation is a text, which is embodied and transmitted in
manuscripts, which have their own histories. Such texts are subject to changes,
such as miscopying, repetition of lines already entered, excision, interpolation
or emendation. Motivations for such changes run the whole gamut of human
motivations, and need also to be assessed in their historical context.
The acceptance of Revelation into the canon is itself the result of a historical
process, essentially no different from the career of other texts. The eventual
exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may throw
light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered
orthodox, what was heterodox, what was even heretical.
The historical-critical interpretation cannot address two aspects of Revelation.
It is not prepared to discuss aspects of divine inspiration of the original
text, nor can it assess the book's relevance to the modern world. Interpretation
of meanings and imagery is limited to what the historical author intended and
what his contemporary audience inferred. Thus, the symbolism of Revelation is to
be understood entirely within its historical literary and social context.
Critics study the conventions of apocalyptic literature and events of the 1st
century to make sense of what the author may have intended.
Nevertheless, many interpretative questions remain: Is the structure of the book
linear, resumptive, or thematic? How does the imagery relate to historical
events? Did the author intend one or multiple meanings in the text? The
plurality of answers to these (and other) questions is plain to see both from
the text of this article and scholarly opinion. Historical-criticism does not
sit well within this plurality, but contemporary approaches to biblical texts,
notably the literary-critical method, revel in this uncertainty. Different
questions are asked, and as a result, the focus shifts from author to reader.
What does it matter who wrote Revelation? Why can't the structure be linear,
resumptive and thematic simultaneously? What stops the imagery relating to just
1st-century events and not 21st-century events as well? Fundamentally, what
stops Revelation having more than one valid meaning? (For more related
information, see Literary criticism, but see also Historical-grammatical
hermeneutics.)
[edit]
The Beast from the Sea
Earlier in Rev 12:7, we saw that the dragon was "enraged at the woman and went
off to make war against the rest of her offspring—those who obey God's
commandments and hold to the testimony of Jesus. And the dragon stood on the
shore of the sea." In Rev 13:1 we see how war is waged against the saints
through the beast that comes out of the sea, as the devil looks on. This beast
was earlier revealed in Rev 11:7 as the beast out of the Abyss who makes war
against the two witnesses and kills them when they have finished their
testimony. We now find out more about this beast. He is introduced here as the
devil's henchman; he even resembles the devil with ten horns and seven heads;
the devil delegates his power to the beast, his throne and authority. He is the
incarnation of the devil on earth through whom the devil makes war on the saints
and overcomes them; the weapons used are imprisonment and death. All who pledge
allegiance to the beast are giving their allegiance to the devil.
Among historicists the beast from the sea that had received plenitude of power
from the dragon, or Satan, is actually the Roman Empire, or rather, the Emperor,
its supreme representative.
The token of the beast with which its servants are marked is the image of the
emperor on the coins of the realm. This seems to be the obvious meaning of the
passage, that all business transactions, all buying and selling were impossible
to them that had not the mark of the beast (Rev 13:17). Against this
interpretation it is objected that the Jews at the time of Jesus had no scruple
in handling money on which the image of Caesar was stamped (Matt 22:15–22). But
it should be borne in mind that the horror of the Jews for the imperial images
was principally due to the policy of Caligula. He confiscated several of their
synagogues, changing them into pagan temples by placing his statue in them. He
even sought to erect an image of himself in the Temple in Jerusalem (Josephus,
A.J., 18.8.2).
Although the historicist view of the beast can be interpreted as the Roman
empire of John's time and subsequent ungodly empires since then, most scholars
believe that it also indicates a future state, culminating supremely in the
empire of the antichrist. The message indicated is that the beast (of the sea)
was given power to conquer the saints, who are the only people who will not
worship the beast; this calls for patient endurance and faithfulness on the part
of the saints. In view of the fact that the beast of the sea kills the two
witnesses at the end of their testimony, that is he silences the witness of the
church (11:7) and in view of the fact that in 17:11 the "beast who once was, and
now is not, is an eighth king", the beast is primarily the antichrist at the end
of the age. However, the beast also belongs to the seven kings, which indicates
that he belongs to a succession of tyrannical regimes which persecute the
saints. As 1 John 2:18 says, "as you have heard that the antichrist is coming,
even now many antichrists have come. This is how we know it is the last hour."
Five of the seven kings have fallen, one is, the other is yet to come, but when
he does come he must remain for a little while. While the man of lawlessness has
not been revealed yet, the secret power of lawlessness is already at work in the
world (2 Thess 2:3-6).
[edit]
Seven Heads of the Beast
The seven heads of the beast are said to represent seven Roman emperors. Five of
them are said to be fallen. They are Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and
Nero. The year of Nero's death is 68. The text goes on to say "One is", namely,
Vespasian (70–79). He is the sixth emperor. The seventh "is not yet come. But
when he comes his reign will be short." Titus is meant, who reigned but two
years (79–81). The eighth emperor is Domitian (81–96); he is identified with the
beast. He is described as the one that "was and is not and shall come up out of
the bottomless pit" (xvii, 8). In verse 11 it is added: "And the beast which was
and is not: the same also is the eighth, and is of the seven, and goeth into
destruction."
All this sounds like oracular language. But the clue to its solution is
furnished by a popular belief largely spread at the time. The death of Nero had
been witnessed by few. Chiefly in the East, a notion had taken hold of the mind
of the people that Nero was still alive. Gentiles, Jews, and Christians were
under the illusion that he was hiding himself, and as was commonly thought, he
had gone over to the Parthians, the most troublesome foes of the empire. From
there they expected him to return at the head of a mighty army to avenge himself
on his enemies. The existence of a belief in a Nero redivivus is attested by
Tacitus and Dio Chrysostom.
Many contemporaries of the author of this book believed Nero to be alive and
expected his return. The author either shared their belief or utilized it for
his own purpose. Nero had made a name for himself by his cruelty and
licentiousness. The Christians in particular had reason to dread him. Under him
the first persecution took place. The second occurred under Domitian. But unlike
the previous one, it was not confined to Italy, but spread throughout the
provinces. Many Christians were put to death, many were banished (Eusebius, Hist.
Eccl., III, 17–19). In this way the book of Revelation seems to regard Domitian
as a second Nero, "Nero redivivus". Hence it describes him as "the one that was,
that is not, and that is to return". Hence also he counts him as the eighth and
at the same time makes him one of the preceding seven, the fifth, Nero.
Note that pagan authors called Domitian a second Nero (calvus Nero, Juvenal. IV,
38). The popular belief concerning Nero's death and return seems to be referred
to also in the passage (xiii, 3): "And I saw one of its heads as it were slain
to death: and its death's wound was healed."
The seven heads might also refer to the Seven Hills of Rome.
[edit]
Ten Horns of the Beast
The ten horns are commonly explained as the vassal rulers under the supremacy of
Rome. They are described as kings (basileis), here to be taken in a wider sense,
that they are not real kings, but received power to rule with the beast. Their
power, moreover, is but for one hour, signifying its short duration and
instability (xvii, 17).
[edit]
Number of the Beast
Main article: Number of the Beast (numerology)
The beast is identified by the number 666 in the text (Rev 13:18). This is very
likely an instance of gematria, an early form of Jewish mysticism. Its object is
to conceal a name by substituting for it a cipher of equal numerical value to
the letters composing it. When the name "Nero Caesar" is spelled with Hebrew
letters as נרון קסר (NRON QSR—Hebrew vowels are not letters), each letter has a
corresponding numerical value, N=50, R=200, O=6 N=50, Q=100, S=60, R=200,
resulting in the sum of 666.
Some Greek manuscripts of Revelation have a different number. Here the number is
not 666, but 616. If Nero is alternatively spelled as NRO instead of NRON, one
gets 616; NRO minus N(=50).
Other people, primarily those who hold to dispensationalism, discount the
gematrian theory and argue that "666" symbolically represents an anti-trinity of
evil (the dragon, the beast, and the false prophet), as "6" is one short from
the perfect "7". It is also believed the number six represents mankind as
created on the sixth day of creation and is a step below God, represented by
seven. The three sixes represent mankind trying to be like God by becoming
omniscient, omnipresent, and omnipotent.
[edit]
The Beast from the Earth
This is the second of the devil's henchmen. The beast from the earth is
otherwise known as the false prophet, and he completes this unholy trinity of
Dragon, beast and false prophet. If the Devil gives to the first beast all his
authority and the second beast gives glory to the first beast, then we have the
counterfeit to the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. If the first beast represents
political power, this one represents religious power. Later he is called the
false prophet: he looks like a lamb but speaks like the devil; he is a
counterfeit Christ. He receives his authority from the political power, and his
function is to coerce the inhabitants of the earth to worship the first beast.
He performs counterfeit miracles, signs and wonders as will the antichrist. As
well as false religion, it can be any false man-made philosophy that supports
the state such as Nazism or communism. He also exercises economic control within
the state, so that no one could buy or sell unless they had the mark of the
beast on their right hand or forehead. The saints do not receive this mark, and
as a result, they suffer for this. The beast's number is 666; 6 is mans number
because man was created on the sixth day. Therefore 666 is a trinity of sixes,
that is, mans religion or philosophy.
According to some historicists, the second beast represents the personal Roman
Imperial Cult, whose office was to assist the beast from the sea, probably
signifying the work of seduction carried on by apostate Christians. They
endeavored to make their fellow Christians adopt the pagan practices and submit
themselves to the cultus of the Caesar. Other interpreters believe that the
second beast is the Church corrupted by its relationship with the Roman Empire
after Christianity was legalized in the early 4th century AD. The woman with
child is a personification of Israel. Her firstborn is Jesus; her other children
represent the community of the faithful—Christians. For some Orthodox and Roman
Catholic Christians, the "woman clothed with the sun" here is the Virgin Mary.
However, most modern-day scholars believe that this too is an indication of a
future state. We can see some of the ways in which the dragon and the beast wage
war against the Church through the beast out of the earth:
i. He looks like Christ (a lamb) but speaks like a dragon; i.e., he speaks lies
and false doctrine; he is a false prophet.
ii. He performs counterfeit signs and wonders which deceive the world and could
deceive even the elect.
iii. He kills all who refuse to worship the image of the beast; this is
persecution.
iv. He forces everyone to receive a mark on his right hand or forehead without
which no one can buy or sell; this is economic control.
[edit]
Footnotes
^ "The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his
servants things which must shortly come to pass; and he sent and signified it by
his angel unto his servant John..." (Rev 1:1 KJV)
[edit]
Related article:
Book of Revelation: Outlines, analyzing the literary structure.
Other:
Fulfilled Prophecy Unfolding events prophesied in the book of Revelation
[edit]
See also
[edit]
Directly related
Number of the Beast (numerology)
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Whore of Babylon
Apocalypse
Wikisource Text
Fifth Monarchy Men
Laodicean Church
Summary of Christian eschatological differences
General
Christian eschatology
Apocalyptic literature
Apocalypticism
Bible code
End times
Millennialism
Books of the Bible
Left Behind
The Omen
Endtime Ministries
Books of the Bible
Preceded by:
Jude
'Revelation'
Followed by:
End
Categories: Book of Revelation | Prophecy | Ancient Roman Christianity |
Christian eschatology | New Testament narrative | Christian apocalyptic